Introduction

In the late 19th century, urbanization and industrialization were bringing about profound changes in the eating habits and food supply of Canadians. Grocery stores were popping up on every street corner. Railways were linking the city to increasingly distant suppliers.

The consumption of dairy products was very much affected by these changes. City dwellers purchased more butter and cheese, discovered ice cream and drank more raw milk than ever before.

As cities grew, so too did the number of complaints about milk quality. Unscrupulous merchants were accused of watering down milk, then covering it up by adding other substances. Furthermore, as there were fewer and fewer cows in town and in the suburbs, transportation of milk took longer and the risk of contamination increased.

The spectacular rise in the infant mortality rate was also blamed on milk. Bacteriological testing would eventually show that milk is an excellent breeding ground for deadly bacteria such as E. coli and those causing typhoid and tuberculosis.

What could be done to address the dangers of raw milk? Some businesses promoted new products, like condensed milk or infant formula. Meanwhile, hygienists and reformers launched a fight for healthier milk. Their weapons were scientific studies, the creation of dispensaries and milk stations (known in French as Gouttes de lait), the lobbying of politicians, and public education. Reformers demanded the inspection of dairy farms, the introduction of stricter public health standards, the refrigeration of milk while in transit and improved distribution practices.

Yet these measures were not enough, and many citizens soon began calling for compulsory pasteurization. Despite strong opposition, Montreal implemented this policy in 1926. Pasteurization triggered a restructuring of the dairy industry and the modernization of milk-processing plants. Companies began to promote the benefits of milk and market new products designed to appeal to young consumers.